Side Effects of sodium polystyrene sulfonate: A Synthesis of Findings from 14 Studies

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Original Abstract of the Article

Major Research Findings

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS), also known as Kayexalate, is a medication commonly used to treat high potassium levels (hyperkalemia). 3 While effective in reducing potassium, SPS has been associated with several gastrointestinal side effects, including constipation, digestive problems, and in rare cases, colonic necrosis. 3 A recent case report revealed a unique side effect of SPS: gastric pneumatosis, or air pockets in the stomach. 9 This highlights the potential for SPS to cause a range of digestive issues.

Reasons for Side Effects

SPS works by binding to potassium in the intestines, removing it from the body. However, this process can also affect the intestines' ability to absorb water, leading to constipation and digestive problems. 3 Additionally, SPS can cause inflammation and damage to the intestinal lining, leading to more serious complications like necrosis. 4 This emphasizes the importance of careful monitoring when using SPS.

Common Side Effects

Constipation

Constipation is one of the most frequently reported side effects of SPS. 3 SPS reduces water absorption in the intestines, making stools harder and more difficult to pass.

Digestive Problems

SPS can interfere with the normal digestive process, leading to digestive issues. 3 This can manifest as indigestion, bloating, or other uncomfortable symptoms.

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis, characterized by stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting, can be a potential side effect of SPS. 3 It is important to consult a doctor if these symptoms arise.

Colonic Necrosis

A severe gastrointestinal side effect of SPS is colonic necrosis, where the intestinal lining dies. 1 This is a serious complication requiring immediate medical attention.

Perforation

Intestinal perforation, a hole in the intestinal wall, is a severe side effect that can occur as a result of colonic necrosis. 4 It is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical care.

Gastric Pneumatosis

A rare side effect of SPS is gastric pneumatosis, the presence of air pockets in the stomach. 9 While uncommon, it's essential to be aware of this potential complication.

Side Effect Management

Constipation Management

Staying hydrated by drinking plenty of fluids is crucial in preventing constipation. 3 A high-fiber diet can also help.

Digestive Problem Management

Consuming easily digestible foods can help manage digestive problems. 3 Digestive enzymes may also be beneficial.

Gastroenteritis Management

If gastroenteritis symptoms arise, consulting a doctor for proper treatment is important. 3 They can provide guidance on managing the symptoms.

Colonic Necrosis and Perforation Management

Colonic necrosis and perforation are serious complications that require immediate medical attention. 1 4 Seek medical help immediately if these symptoms arise.

Gastric Pneumatosis Management

Consult a doctor if gastric pneumatosis symptoms occur. 9 They can assess the situation and provide appropriate treatment.

Research Comparisons

Research Similarities

Multiple studies have consistently found that SPS is associated with gastrointestinal side effects. 3 11 5 4 These studies have documented constipation, digestive problems, gastroenteritis, colonic necrosis, and perforation as potential side effects.

Research Differences

The frequency and severity of SPS side effects can vary depending on the research study. 3 11 5 4 Additionally, gastric pneumatosis has been reported as a side effect in some studies. 9

Real-life Application Notes

While SPS is a valuable treatment for hyperkalemia, it's crucial to be aware of the potential for gastrointestinal side effects. 3 11 5 4 9 It's important to discuss any concerns or symptoms with your doctor.

Current Research Limitations

The body of research on SPS side effects remains incomplete. 3 11 5 4 9 Particularly, research on long-term SPS use and its associated side effects needs further exploration.

Future Research Directions

More research on SPS side effects, especially those related to long-term use, is essential. 3 11 5 4 9 This research can help optimize SPS treatment and minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Conclusion

SPS is an effective treatment for hyperkalemia, but it's crucial to be aware of its potential gastrointestinal side effects. 3 11 5 4 9 Open communication with your doctor about any concerns or symptoms is essential to ensure safe and effective treatment.

Literature analysis of 14 papers
Positive Content
4
Neutral Content
3
Negative Content
7
Article Type
0
3
3
4
11
1.

Risk of Intestinal Necrosis With Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Author: HolleckJürgen L, RobertsAndrea E, MarhofferElizabeth A, GrimshawAlyssa A, GundersonCraig G

Intestinal necrosis

This systematic review examines the gastrointestinal side effects of sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS), particularly intestinal necrosis. The review included studies with controls and reported the rates of intestinal necrosis associated with SPS.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Meta-AnalysisA statistical technique that integrates the results of multiple studies to draw more general conclusions about a particular issue.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.
Systematic ReviewA review that systematically collects, evaluates, and integrates relevant research to answer a specific research question.

Language : English

3.

Potassium binders for chronic hyperkalaemia in people with chronic kidney disease.

Author: NatalePatrizia, PalmerSuetonia C, RuospoMarinella, SaglimbeneValeria M, StrippoliGiovanni Fm

CKD management
Hyperkalemia treatment
GI side effects

Hyperkalemia is a condition characterized by high potassium levels in the blood, often seen in people with kidney disease. This review discusses the different types of potassium-binding medications available for treating hyperkalemia, including newer options like patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate. The review aims to provide guidance on the effectiveness and tolerability of these medications for individuals with kidney disease.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Meta-AnalysisA statistical technique that integrates the results of multiple studies to draw more general conclusions about a particular issue.
Systematic ReviewA review that systematically collects, evaluates, and integrates relevant research to answer a specific research question.

Language : English

6.

Risk of Intestinal Necrosis With Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Author: HolleckJürgen L, RobertsAndrea E, MarhofferElizabeth A, GrimshawAlyssa A, GundersonCraig G

Intestinal necrosis

This systematic review examines the gastrointestinal side effects of sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS), particularly intestinal necrosis. The review included studies with controls and reported the rates of intestinal necrosis associated with SPS.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Meta-AnalysisA statistical technique that integrates the results of multiple studies to draw more general conclusions about a particular issue.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.
Systematic ReviewA review that systematically collects, evaluates, and integrates relevant research to answer a specific research question.

Language : English

7.

[The presence of crystals of sodium polystyrene sulfonate in the colonic wall: innocent bystander or pathogenic factor?].

Author: CapitaniniAlessandro, BozzoliLaura, RolloStefania, PiroloBiagio, GianneseDomenico, ZulloClaudia, CupistiAdamasco

Hyperkalemia treatment
Intestinal damage

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS; Kayexalate) is used for hyperkalemia treatment, but it can cause gastrointestinal side effects. This case report highlights the potential for SPS to cause iatrogenic intestinal damage, even at low doses.

Case ReportsIn the medical field, a report that describes in detail a unique case, an unusual medical condition, or the effect of a treatment. Provides new insights and possibilities for treatment through individual patient cases.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : Italian

8.

Role of Hyperkalemia in Heart Failure and the Therapeutic Use of Potassium Binders.

Author: SarwarChaudhry M S, BhagatAditi A, AnkerStefan D, ButlerJaved

Treats Hyperkalemia
Side Effects

This chapter reviews the pathophysiology of hyperkalemia and discusses the use of novel potassium-lowering compounds, patiromersorbitex calcium and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, for the treatment and prevention of hyperkalemia in at-risk populations, particularly those with heart failure.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

9.

Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate-Induced Gastric Pneumatosis: A Rare Side Effect.

Author: DasuNeethi, KhalidYaser, DasuKirti, JooLucy, BlairBrian

gastric pneumatosis

This case report describes a unique case of gastric pneumatosis as a complication of kayexalate.

Case ReportsIn the medical field, a report that describes in detail a unique case, an unusual medical condition, or the effect of a treatment. Provides new insights and possibilities for treatment through individual patient cases.

Language : English

11.

Evaluation of the tolerability and efficacy of sodium polystyrene sulfonate for long-term management of hyperkalemia in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Author: GeorgianosPanagiotis I, LiampasIoannis, KyriakouAndreas, VaiosVasilios, RaptisVasilios, SavvidisNikolaos, SioulisAthanasios, LiakopoulosVassilios, BalaskasElias V, ZebekakisPantelis E

Treats hyperkalemia

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS) has been widely used for decades to treat mild chronic hyperkalemia in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), but evidence for its long-term tolerability and efficacy is still lacking.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Observational StudyResearch that observes and collects data on participants' behavior and outcomes in their natural state, without intervention.

Language : English

12.

Treatment of hyperkalemia: something old, something new.

Author: SternsRichard H, GrieffMarvin, BernsteinPaul L

Hyperkalemia treatment
Hypomagnesemia
Sodium overload

New potassium binders, such as patiromer and ZS-9, show promise as treatments for hyperkalemia.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

14.

Acute toxic effects of sustained-release verapamil in chronic renal failure.

Author: PritzaD R, BiermanM H, HammekeM D

Atrioventricular heart block
Hepatic dysfunction
Hyperkalemia
Hypotension
Metabolic acidosis

Sustained-release verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, can lead to acute toxic effects in hypertensive patients with chronic renal insufficiency or end-stage renal disease. Patients should be monitored closely for adverse cardiovascular, metabolic, and hepatic side effects.

Case ReportsIn the medical field, a report that describes in detail a unique case, an unusual medical condition, or the effect of a treatment. Provides new insights and possibilities for treatment through individual patient cases.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

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