Side Effects of doxazosin: A Synthesis of Findings from 30 Studies

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Original Abstract of the Article

Major Research Findings

Doxazosin is a medication commonly used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and has been shown to be effective in improving lower urinary tract symptoms and increasing urinary flow. 12 . It also has a role in treating hypertension by dilating blood vessels and lowering blood pressure. 16 . However, it's important to note that doxazosin can cause several side effects, and research is ongoing to better understand its impact.

Reasons for Side Effects

Doxazosin's side effects arise from its interaction with alpha1 adrenergic receptors found in various tissues like blood vessels, heart, prostate, and bladder. When doxazosin binds to these receptors, it triggers blood vessel dilation and inhibits heart contraction, which explains its blood pressure-lowering and urinary symptom improvement effects. However, this interaction can also cause side effects such as dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, fatigue, and retrograde ejaculation.

Common Side Effects

Dizziness, Lightheadedness

Doxazosin's vasodilating action can lead to a decrease in blood pressure, particularly when standing up, causing dizziness and lightheadedness. 3 . This effect is often more prominent when starting doxazosin but tends to subside with continued use.

Headache

Doxazosin can induce headaches. 3 . These headaches are usually mild and resolve on their own.

Fatigue

Fatigue and tiredness can be side effects of doxazosin. 3 . These symptoms are usually mild and temporary.

Retrograde Ejaculation

Doxazosin may cause retrograde ejaculation. 3 . This occurs when semen flows back into the bladder rather than out the urethra during ejaculation, affecting about 4.5% of men on doxazosin.

Countermeasures for Side Effects

Dizziness, Lightheadedness

To minimize dizziness and lightheadedness, stand up slowly after taking doxazosin. Staying adequately hydrated is also beneficial. 3 .

Headache

If you experience persistent or severe headaches, consult your doctor. They may recommend over-the-counter pain relievers or alternative treatments.

Fatigue

If fatigue is bothersome, discuss it with your doctor. They might suggest rest or recommend medication if necessary.

Retrograde Ejaculation

Retrograde ejaculation affects about 4.5% of men taking doxazosin. If you are concerned about this side effect, talk to your doctor.

Comparison Across Studies

Commonalities Among Studies

Multiple studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of doxazosin in managing BPH and have also highlighted its potential to cause side effects such as dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, fatigue, and retrograde ejaculation.

Differences Among Studies

Variations in the incidence and severity of doxazosin side effects have been observed across different studies. This variability is likely influenced by factors like study design and participant characteristics.

Implications for Everyday Life

While doxazosin is a valuable medication for BPH and hypertension treatment, it's crucial to be aware of its side effects. Dizziness, lightheadedness, and headaches can potentially disrupt daily activities. Therefore, it's essential to follow your doctor's instructions carefully, report any side effects promptly, and seek medical advice as needed.

Limitations of Current Research

Research on the side effects of doxazosin is still ongoing. More extensive studies are needed, particularly focusing on long-term side effects and their potential impact.

Future Research Directions

Continued research on doxazosin's side effects is essential. This includes investigating long-term side effects, their frequency in specific populations, and the development of strategies to mitigate or manage these effects.

Conclusion

Doxazosin is an effective medication for BPH and hypertension treatment, but it carries the risk of side effects. It's important to be aware of these potential side effects, consult your doctor if you experience any, and follow their instructions carefully. Research on doxazosin's side effects is ongoing, and further studies are necessary to fully understand its long-term impact.

Keywords
Benefit Keywords
CVD treatment
1
Hypertension treatment
Reduced titration need
2
Improved urinary flow
Reduced urethral pressure
3
BPH treatment
Urodynamic parameters
4
BPH treatment
5
Improved urinary flow
Reduced BPH symptoms
6
Volume expansion
7
BPH treatment
8
Apoptosis induction
9
Improved urine flow
Reduced prostate symptoms
10
Benign prostatic hypertrophy treatment
Blood pressure reduction
Improved plasma lipid profiles
11
Improved urinary symptoms
Increased Qmax
14
Alfuzosin safety
15
Improved vascular health
Reduced blood pressure
16
Improved lipid profiles
Reduced blood pressure
17
Renal transplantation rejection reduction
18
Simplified titration schedule
19
Doxazosin decreases colic
Doxazosin improves expulsion
Doxazosin well tolerated
20
Improved prescribing quality
21
Effective treatment of BPH
Safe treatment
22
BPH management
23
Benign prostatic enlargement treatment
Bladder outlet obstruction reduction
Hypertension treatment
24
Reduced LUTS
26
Effective BPH treatment
Minimal side effects
Well-tolerated
27
Nightmare reduction
Sleep improvement
28
Urolithiasis treatment
29
Benign prostatic hyperplasia treatment
Blood pressure control
Reduced titration need
30
Risk Keywords
Asthenia
Dizziness
Headache
2
Dizziness
Headache
Hypotension
Retrograde ejaculation
3
Doxazosin side effects
Urodynamic assessment
4
Sexual dysfunction
5
Asthenia
Dizziness
Loss of ejaculation
Postural hypotension
6
Postural hypotension
Tachycardia
7
Cardiovascular side effects
8
Side effects
9
Side effects
10
Dizziness
Drowsiness
Headache
Orthostatic hypotension
11
Arrhythmia
13
Ejaculatory disorders
Orthostatic hypotension
15
Doxazosin side effects
16
Adverse events
Increased fasting glucose
17
Hepatic biochemistry alterations
Hyperlipidemia
Interstitial pneumonitis
Thrombocytopenia
18
Dizziness
Fatigue
Headache
Somnolence
22
Sexual dysfunction
23
Cardiovascular effects
24
Dizziness
Postural hypotension
25
Possible ejaculatory side effects
26
None reported
27
Ejaculatory complaints
Postural hypotension
29
Literature analysis of 30 papers
Positive Content
27
Neutral Content
2
Negative Content
1
Article Type
8
1
0
8
29
1.

Adverse effects of interactions between antipsychotics and medications used in the treatment of cardiovascular disorders.

Author: SiwekMarcin, WorońJarosław, GorostowiczAleksandra, WordliczekJerzy

CVD treatment

This study aimed to evaluate the potential for harmful interactions between antipsychotics and medications used to treat cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in patients with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia who are at risk of CVD.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

2.

Doxazosin GITS compared with doxazosin standard and placebo in patients with mild hypertension.

Author: OsI, StokkeH P

Hypertension treatment
Reduced titration need
Asthenia
Dizziness
Headache

This study compared the efficacy and tolerability of a new controlled-release formulation of doxazosin (doxazosin GITS) with standard doxazosin and placebo in patients with mild hypertension. Doxazosin GITS was found to be as effective as standard doxazosin in lowering blood pressure and was well tolerated, with minimal need for titration.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Multicenter StudyResearch conducted in collaboration with multiple research institutions. It aims to collect a wide range of data and obtain more generalizable results.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

3.

Alpha blockers: are all created equal?

Author: DebruyneF M

Improved urinary flow
Reduced urethral pressure
Dizziness
Headache
Hypotension
Retrograde ejaculation

Alpha blockers are a class of medications commonly used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia. They work by reducing urethral pressure. While various alpha blockers are available, they differ in their side effect profiles.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

4.

Effects of doxazosin in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia: urodynamic assessment.

Author: OzbeyI, AksoyY, PolatO, BiçgiO, DemirelA, OkyarG

BPH treatment
Urodynamic parameters
Doxazosin side effects
Urodynamic assessment

Doxazosin improved urodynamic parameters in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia, but the invasiveness and cost of urodynamic studies limit their widespread use.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

7.

[Effects of doxazosin mosylate and phenoxybenzamine in preoperative volume expansion of pheochromocytoma: a comparative study in 38 cases].

Author: PanDong-liang, LiHan-zhong, JiZhi-gang, ZengZheng-pei

Volume expansion
Postural hypotension
Tachycardia

Doxazosin mosylate was less effective than phenoxybenzamine for preoperative volume expansion in patients with pheochromocytoma but had a significantly lower rate of side effects.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
English AbstractA summary of a research paper/publication written in English for a wider audience.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : Chinese

8.

[Effects of doxazosin enantiomers on alpha-adrenoceptors of isolated rabbit blood vessels].

Author: LuHai-gang, LiuLi-fang, RenLei-ming, ZhaoQing-hua, DuanLi-hua, ZhangXiao-yuan

BPH treatment
Cardiovascular side effects

This study compared the effects of R-doxazosin and S-doxazosin on alpha1-adrenoceptor-regulated vasoconstriction in isolated rabbit arteries. The study found that both R-doxazosin and S-doxazosin competitively inhibited vasoconstriction induced by noradrenaline, with R-doxazosin being significantly more potent than S-doxazosin. Neither isomer affected presynaptic alpha2-adrenoceptor-regulated purinergic vasoconstriction at the concentrations studied.

English AbstractA summary of a research paper/publication written in English for a wider audience.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : Chinese

9.

Apoptosis induction by doxazosin and other quinazoline alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonists: a new mechanism for cancer treatment?

Author: KyprianouNatasha, VaughanTaylor B, MichelMartin C

Apoptosis induction
Side effects

Doxazosin and related, quinazoline-based alpha(1)-adrenoceptor antagonists can induce apoptosis in prostate and various other normal, benign, smooth muscle, endothelial and malignant cells.

EditorialAn article in which the editor or publisher expresses their opinion or perspective on a particular topic or issue. Its purpose is to convey a specific message or idea to the reader.
Research Support, N.I.H., ExtramuralResearch funding provided by the NIH to external research institutions and researchers.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

12.

A meta-analysis on the efficacy and tolerability of alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonists in patients with lower urinary tract symptoms suggestive of benign prostatic obstruction.

Author: DjavanB, MarbergerM

The efficacy and tolerability of four alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonists (alfuzosin, terazosin, doxazosin, and tamsulosin) for the treatment of lower urinary tract symptoms suggestive of benign prostatic obstruction (BPO) were compared.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Meta-AnalysisA statistical technique that integrates the results of multiple studies to draw more general conclusions about a particular issue.

Language : English

13.

Comparison of the cardiac electrophysiological effects between doxazosin and bunazosin.

Author: LeeAn-Sheng, ChenWen-Pin, SuMing-Jai

Arrhythmia

Doxazosin, an alpha-1 adrenoceptor blocker, can cause heart rhythm problems at higher doses, while bunazosin, another alpha-1 blocker, is safer for long-term use.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

14.

Determination of the efficiency of 8 mg doxazosin XL treatment in patients with an inadequate response to 4 mg doxazosin XL treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Author: KetenTanju, AslanYilmaz, BalciMelih, TuncelAltug, BilginOvunc, DilmenCem, OzdemirUmit, YahsiSedat, GuzelOzer, AtanAli

Improved urinary symptoms
Increased Qmax

Doxazosin XL at 8 mg was effective in treating patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia-related lower urinary tract symptoms who did not respond adequately to 4 mg.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

15.

Adverse events related to alpha-blockers: analysis of real-life data from Eudra-Vigilance.

Author: CicioneAntonio, NacchiaAntonio, BaldassarriValeria, TemaGiorgia, RovestiLorenzo M, ManciniElisa, GuarnottaGiorgio, VoglinoOlivia A, FrancoAntonio, D'AnnunzioSimone, LombardoRiccardo, TubaroAndrea, DE NunzioCosimo

Alfuzosin safety
Ejaculatory disorders
Orthostatic hypotension

This study analyzed real-life data on neuro-vascular and sexual adverse events (AEs) associated with alpha-blockers (ABs) reported to the Eudra-Vigilance database. The study found that silodosin had a significantly higher risk of ejaculatory disorders, while tamsulosin and silodosin had a lower risk of orthostatic hypotension compared to other ABs.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

17.

Effect of doxazosin gastrointestinal therapeutic system as third-line antihypertensive therapy on blood pressure and lipids in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial.

Author: ChapmanNeil, ChangChoon Lan, DahlöfBjörn, SeverPeter S, WedelHans, PoulterNeil R,

Improved lipid profiles
Reduced blood pressure
Adverse events
Increased fasting glucose

A study of 10,069 people with hypertension found that doxazosin was effective in lowering blood pressure and well-tolerated as a third-line antihypertensive agent.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Multicenter StudyResearch conducted in collaboration with multiple research institutions. It aims to collect a wide range of data and obtain more generalizable results.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

18.

[Interstitial pneumonitis associated with sirolimus administration in a renal transplantation patient: a clinical case].

Author: MartínezM, González RonceroF M, LópezM, ToroJ, ValdiviaM A, PereiraP, GentilM A, Rodríguez AlgarraG, MateosJ

Renal transplantation rejection reduction
Hepatic biochemistry alterations
Hyperlipidemia
Interstitial pneumonitis
Thrombocytopenia

Sirolimus is an immunosuppressant drug that has been shown to be effective in preventing rejection in kidney transplant recipients. It can cause side effects such as thrombocytopenia and hyperlipidemia, and in rare cases, interstitial pneumonitis.

Case ReportsIn the medical field, a report that describes in detail a unique case, an unusual medical condition, or the effect of a treatment. Provides new insights and possibilities for treatment through individual patient cases.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : Spanish

19.

Clinical pharmacokinetics of doxazosin in a controlled-release gastrointestinal therapeutic system (GITS) formulation.

Author: ChungM, VashiV, PuenteJ, SweeneyM, MeredithP

Simplified titration schedule

This study evaluated the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of a controlled-release gastrointestinal therapeutic system (GITS) formulation of doxazosin mesylate. The study found that doxazosin GITS provided a more consistent drug release profile and allowed for a simplified titration schedule compared to standard doxazosin.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

20.

Preliminary study of efficacy of doxazosin as a medical expulsive therapy of distal ureteric stones in a randomized clinical trial.

Author: ZehriAli Akbar, AtherM Hammad, AbbasFarhat, BiyabaniS Raziuddin

Doxazosin decreases colic
Doxazosin improves expulsion
Doxazosin well tolerated

This randomized controlled trial compared the effectiveness of doxazosin with diclofenac sodium for treating distal ureterolithiasis in 65 patients. Doxazosin significantly improved stone expulsion rates and reduced colic frequency and analgesic use.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

21.

Using explicit criteria to evaluate the quality of prescribing in elderly Italian outpatients: a cohort study.

Author: MaioV, Del CanaleS, AbouzaidS,

Improved prescribing quality

This study developed explicit criteria for potentially inappropriate medication prescribing (PIP) for the elderly in Italy and assessed the prevalence of PIP among elderly residents. The researchers found that PIP was common among elderly residents and identified factors associated with PIP.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

22.

[The clinical and flowmetric results of the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia with doxazosin].

Author: Salinas CasadoJ, Esteban FuertesM, Virseda ChamorroM, Ramírez FernándezJ C, Salomon Moh'dS, Luengo AlpuenteS, Resel EstévezL

Effective treatment of BPH
Safe treatment
Dizziness
Fatigue
Headache
Somnolence

Doxazosin 4 mg daily for 6 months is a safe and effective treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia, improving urinary symptoms and flow rate.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : Spanish

23.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia evaluation, treatment and association with sexual dysfunction: practice patterns according to physician specialty.

Author: SeftelA D, RosenR C, RosenbergM T, SadovskyR

BPH management
Sexual dysfunction

This study surveyed US urologists and primary care physicians to ascertain physician knowledge of the AUA guideline on benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) management and practice patterns regarding LUTS/BPH diagnosis, treatment, and association with sexual dysfunction.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Multicenter StudyResearch conducted in collaboration with multiple research institutions. It aims to collect a wide range of data and obtain more generalizable results.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

25.

Alpha-adrenergic blocking drugs in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia: interactions with antihypertensive therapy.

Author: TewariA, NarayanP

Dizziness
Postural hypotension

This review discusses the use of alpha blockers for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and their potential interactions with antihypertensive drugs.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

26.

Alpha1-adrenergic receptors and their inhibitors in lower urinary tract symptoms and benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Author: RoehrbornClaus G, SchwinnDebra A

Reduced LUTS
Possible ejaculatory side effects

Alpha1-adrenergic receptors (alpha1ARs) are critical mediators of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Drugs that block these receptors are effective treatments for BPH. Tamsulosin and alfuzosin are two effective drugs that have fewer side effects than nonselective alpha1AR antagonists.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.Research funding provided by the Public Health Service (PHS).
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

27.

Alpha-blockade therapy for benign prostatic hyperplasia: from a nonselective to a more selective alpha1A-adrenergic antagonist.

Author: BeduschiM C, BeduschiR, OesterlingJ E

Effective BPH treatment
Minimal side effects
Well-tolerated
None reported

Tamsulosin, a selective alpha1A-adrenergic antagonist, is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

29.

Tamsulosin and doxazosin as adjunctive therapy following shock-wave lithotripsy of renal calculi: randomized controlled trial.

Author: ZaytounOsama M, YakoubiRachid, ZahranAbdel Rahman M, FoudaKhaled, MarzoukEssam, GaafarSalah, FareedKhaled

Urolithiasis treatment
Ejaculatory complaints
Postural hypotension

Adding tamsulosin or doxazosin, alpha-blockers, after shock wave lithotripsy (SWL) for renal calculi decreased the time for stone expulsion, amount of analgesics, and number of colic episodes, but did not improve the overall stone expulsion rate.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

30.

Effects of doxazosin in the gastrointestinal therapeutic system formulation versus doxazosin standard and placebo in mild-to-moderate hypertension. Doxazosin Investigators' Study Group.

Author: OsI, StokkeH P

Benign prostatic hyperplasia treatment
Blood pressure control
Reduced titration need

Doxazosin is an effective treatment for hypertension and benign prostatic hyperplasia. This study compared the efficacy and tolerability of doxazosin GITS (gastrointestinal therapeutic system) with standard doxazosin and placebo in hypertensive patients. Results showed that doxazosin GITS was as effective as standard doxazosin in controlling blood pressure and was well-tolerated, with fewer patients discontinuing treatment due to side effects.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Multicenter StudyResearch conducted in collaboration with multiple research institutions. It aims to collect a wide range of data and obtain more generalizable results.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

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