Major research findings

Pimozide is a dopamine antagonist that has been shown to affect the brain's reward pathways. 27 found that pimozide selectively inhibits the rewarding effects of brain stimulation, suggesting a specific role in blocking central reward pathways. This research suggests that the D2 dopamine receptor is crucial for activating central reward pathways involved in both drug and electrical reinforcement. 14 investigated the effects of pimozide on the reproductive axis of juvenile female striped bass. The study found that pimozide did not affect pituitary and plasma gonadotropin II levels but inhibited its release in response to GnRH agonist stimulation, suggesting potential involvement in the regulation of hormone release. 10 validated the use of drug-induced tremulous jaw movements (TJMs) in rats as a model for parkinsonian tremor. Pimozide, a typical antipsychotic, induced TJMs in a dose-dependent manner, supporting the hypothesis that these drugs can induce parkinsonian-like symptoms. 2 highlighted the use of pimozide in treating schizophrenia and related psychoses, but also pointed out its potential for cardiotoxicity and sudden unexplained deaths, emphasizing the importance of electrocardiogram monitoring. 25 studied the effects of pimozide on rat behavior in a multiple random-interval schedule. The findings suggest that pimozide decreases the rewarding properties of sucrose pellets, indicating a potential impact on the perceived value of rewards. 1 compared the effectiveness of pimozide with chlorpromazine in treating newly admitted schizophrenic patients. Pimozide was found to be less effective, particularly in highly agitated patients, suggesting potential limitations in treating acute symptoms. 22 examined the effects of pimozide on self-stimulation in rats using a fixed-interval schedule. Pimozide inhibited self-stimulation, suggesting a potential role in suppressing reward-seeking behavior. 20 compared the effects of chronic pimozide and clozapine administration on operant responding in rats. The study found that tolerance did not develop to the effects of pimozide, indicating a potential difference in how these drugs affect behavior over time. 8 investigated the effects of pimozide on the reproductive axis of Senegalese sole. The study found evidence of a dopamine inhibitory tone in mature males, which may play a role in regulating reproductive function. 12 examined the effects of pimozide on testicular development in juvenile and early maturing striped bass. While pimozide did not induce complete testicular maturation, it suggests a potential role in influencing hormone release and potentially reproductive processes. 9 explored the use of pimozide for tics in Tourette's syndrome. While it's a traditional treatment, concerns about side effects are leading to a decline in its use. 28 investigated the role of GABA in the stimulatory effects of LHRH analogs and pimozide on gonadotropin release in carp. The study suggests an interaction between GABA, dopamine, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in regulating hormone release. 7 assessed the metabolic effects of aripiprazole and pimozide in children with Tourette syndrome. The study found that pimozide significantly increased glycemia, highlighting a potential metabolic side effect. 13 examined the effects of pimozide on isolation-induced aggression in male mice. Subchronic administration of pimozide reduced offensive behaviors, suggesting a potential anti-aggressive effect. 11 investigated the inhibitory effects of pimozide on cloned and native voltage-gated potassium channels. The study found that pimozide blocks certain neuronal Kv channels, potentially affecting neurotransmitter release. 16 compared the effects of chronic administration of haloperidol and pimozide on dopamine metabolism in the rat brain. The study suggests that pimozide does not produce adaptive changes leading to supersensitivity of the dopaminergic system. 15 explored the effects of pimozide on the psychopathology of delusional disorder. The study found no significant therapeutic effects, suggesting that delusional disorder may involve different neurobiology than schizophrenia. 18 examined the effects of repeated dosing with pimozide and clozapine on fixed-ratio responding in rats. The study found that pimozide produces a prolonged suppression of responding, highlighting a potential difference in tolerance development between typical and atypical antipsychotics. 24 assessed the effects of pimozide on the hedonic properties of sucrose using a taste reactivity test. The findings suggest that pimozide reduces the palatability of sucrose, indicating a potential impact on the perceived pleasantness of rewards. 5 explored the effects of pimozide on visceral pain in mice. The study found that pimozide reduced referred hyperalgesia and colonic hypersensitivity to distension, suggesting a potential therapeutic use in managing visceral pain. 21 examined the effects of pimozide on cholecystokinin-elicited hypoactivity in hamsters. The study found that pimozide blocked CCK-induced hypoactivity, suggesting a potential role in modulating dopamine-related behavioral responses. 3 reviewed the use of pimozide for treating tics in Tourette's syndrome. While it's a traditional treatment, concerns about side effects have led to a decline in its use. 6 investigated the effects of pimozide derivatives on STAT5 phosphorylation in K562 cells. The study found that pimozide derivatives can decrease phosphorylated STAT5 levels, suggesting potential therapeutic applications in treating certain types of cancer. 19 examined the sensitivity of operant behaviors to changes in sucrose reinforcement concentration, with pimozide administration. The results suggest that pimozide reduces the hedonic impact of the reinforcer. 17 explored the effects of pimozide on cognition in children with Tourette syndrome. The study found that pimozide improved cognitive performance compared to haloperidol, suggesting potential cognitive benefits in this population. 4 investigated the inhibitory effects of pimozide on voltage-gated potassium channels in rabbit coronary arterial smooth muscle cells. The study found that pimozide inhibits Kv currents, suggesting a potential impact on vascular function. 23 examined the effects of cocaine and pimozide on alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) levels in rats. The study found that pimozide increased alpha-MSH levels in the peripheral blood, suggesting a potential impact on hormonal regulation. 26 investigated the effects of pimozide on the response-reinstating effects of water reinforcement in rats. The study found that pimozide attenuated the reinstatement of operant running behavior, suggesting a potential role in reducing reward-related relapse.

Benefits and risks

Benefits summary

Pimozide may be beneficial in treating certain conditions such as Tourette's syndrome, schizophrenia, and related psychoses. It might also be helpful in managing certain types of cancer and reducing relapse in reward-seeking behavior. 2 , 6 , 26

Risks summary

Pimozide carries risks such as cardiotoxicity, sudden unexplained deaths, and metabolic side effects like increased blood glucose and cholesterol levels. It can also affect cognitive performance in some individuals. 2 , 7 , 17

Comparison of studies

Commonalities among studies

Numerous studies show that pimozide is a dopamine antagonist. Many studies have also investigated the effects of pimozide on the brain's reward system. 27 , 25 , 22 , 26 , 19

Differences among studies

The effects of pimozide can vary depending on the specific condition, animal species, and even individual differences. For example, pimozide may be effective in treating schizophrenia but not delusional disorder. While it can induce jaw tremors in rats, it may suppress activity in hamsters. 10 , 15 , 21

Consistency and contradictions in findings

While pimozide generally blocks reward pathways, it can also have seemingly contradictory effects, such as stimulating gonadotropin release and potentially promoting spermatogenesis in some species. This suggests that pimozide's effects might be complex and context-dependent. 27 , 14 , 12

Cautionary notes for real-life application

Due to the potential for serious side effects, pimozide should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional. Regular monitoring of heart function and blood glucose and cholesterol levels is important for patients taking pimozide. 2 , 7

Limitations of current research

Further research is needed to fully understand the effects of pimozide on human brains. Specifically, more research is needed to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which pimozide exerts its effects in the brain. 3 , 13

Future research directions

Future research should focus on better understanding the effects of pimozide on human brains. This includes investigating the specific mechanisms by which it works and identifying ways to mitigate potential side effects. 2 , 7

Conclusion

Pimozide is a dopamine antagonist that affects the brain's reward system and may be effective in treating certain conditions. However, it carries significant risks, including cardiotoxicity and potential metabolic side effects. It's crucial to use pimozide under the guidance of a healthcare professional and monitor for any potential adverse effects. 27 , 2