Side Effects of disopyramide: A Synthesis of Findings from 26 Studies

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Original Abstract of the Article

Major Research Findings

Disopyramide is a medication used to treat arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular premature contractions. Many studies have shown that disopyramide is effective in treating these conditions. 14 、 26 、 25 、 1 However, research has also found that disopyramide can cause side effects. These include dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary hesitancy, nausea, and headache. 26 、 1 、 2 、 Studies have also shown that disopyramide is more likely to cause side effects than other antiarrhythmic medications. 17 、 7 In some cases, disopyramide may increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation when used to treat atrial fibrillation. 6 Disopyramide is an effective treatment for arrhythmias such as ventricular fibrillation and atrial fibrillation, but it's essential to be aware of its potential side effects and take it under the guidance of a doctor.

Reasons for Side Effects

Disopyramide possesses an effect known as anticholinergic action. This refers to its ability to inhibit the function of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. Acetylcholine plays a critical role in regulating heart muscle movement, promoting saliva and sweat secretion, and facilitating digestive system movement. The anticholinergic properties of disopyramide are believed to contribute to side effects like dry mouth, blurred vision, and difficulty urinating. 2 、 Additionally, disopyramide can weaken the contractility of heart muscle, potentially leading to side effects such as heart failure. 4 、 15

Common Side Effects

Dry mouth

Disopyramide can cause dry mouth because it inhibits the production of saliva. This side effect is a consequence of the anticholinergic action of disopyramide. 2 、 26 、 1 、

Blurred vision

Disopyramide can lead to blurred vision due to its inhibition of pupil constriction in the eyes. This side effect is also attributed to the anticholinergic action of disopyramide. 2 、 1

Difficulty urinating

Disopyramide can cause difficulty urinating by inhibiting bladder muscle contraction. This side effect is another manifestation of disopyramide's anticholinergic action. 2 、 1

Nausea

Disopyramide can lead to nausea and other gastrointestinal symptoms due to its suppression of digestive system movement. 2 、 1

Headache

Disopyramide may cause headaches and other neurological symptoms. 1

Heart failure

Disopyramide can cause side effects like heart failure because it weakens the contractility of heart muscle. 4 、 15

Ventricular fibrillation

There are also reports suggesting that disopyramide may increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation when used to treat atrial fibrillation. 6

Measures to Counteract Side Effects

Dry mouth

Dry mouth can be alleviated by staying hydrated through frequent water consumption. Chewing gum or sucking on candies can also be helpful. 2

Blurred vision

Blurred vision typically resolves upon discontinuing disopyramide. If blurred vision persists, seek the advice of an ophthalmologist. 2

Difficulty urinating

Difficulty urinating may improve after stopping disopyramide. If the issue persists, consult a urologist for guidance. 2

Nausea

Nausea can be managed by eating smaller, more frequent meals. Consuming easily digestible foods and cold foods can also help. If nausea doesn't improve, consult a gastroenterologist. 2

Headache

Headaches can often be relieved by taking painkillers such as analgesics. If headaches persist, seek the advice of a neurologist. 1

Heart failure

Heart failure can potentially be addressed by stopping disopyramide or switching to a different medication. If heart failure doesn't improve, consult a cardiologist. 4 、 15

Comparison Between Studies

Commonalities in Studies

Many studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of disopyramide in treating arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular premature contractions. A consistent finding across studies is that disopyramide can cause side effects such as dry mouth, blurred vision, and difficulty urinating. 14 、 26 、 25 、 1 、 2 、

Differences in Studies

The frequency and severity of disopyramide side effects can vary between studies. This variation is likely due to factors like the characteristics of the study participants and the dosage of disopyramide administered. For instance, research indicates that higher disopyramide dosages increase the likelihood of side effects. 1 Additionally, studies have shown that disopyramide is more prone to causing side effects compared to other antiarrhythmic medications. 17 、 7 Furthermore, some studies have reported that disopyramide might elevate the risk of ventricular fibrillation when used to treat atrial fibrillation. 6

Cautions Regarding Application to Real Life

Disopyramide is an effective treatment for arrhythmias like ventricular fibrillation and atrial fibrillation, but its potential for causing side effects underscores the importance of taking it under the guidance of a doctor. As the side effects of disopyramide can vary significantly among individuals, it's crucial to consult a doctor before starting disopyramide and to choose a medication that aligns with your individual health profile. During treatment with disopyramide, regular check-ups with your doctor are essential to monitor for any side effects. 26

Limitations of Current Research

Research on disopyramide is still considered insufficient. There are many aspects related to the long-term effects of disopyramide that remain unclear. Furthermore, additional research is needed to develop safe and effective methods for mitigating disopyramide's side effects. 19 、 11

Directions for Future Research

Developing safe and effective approaches to manage the side effects of disopyramide is a significant priority for future research. Additionally, further investigation into the long-term effects of disopyramide is necessary. 19 、 11

Conclusion

Disopyramide is an effective drug for treating arrhythmias such as ventricular fibrillation and atrial fibrillation, but it's important to be aware of its potential side effects and to take it under the guidance of a doctor. Many aspects of disopyramide's side effects remain unclear, highlighting the need for further research in this area. 26 、 17 、 7 、 6

Keywords
Benefit Keywords
Alternative to quinidine
Arrhythmia control
1
Reduced anticholinergic side effects
2
Sinus rhythm maintenance
Vagal P-AF treatment
3
Tachycardia treatment
5
Alleviated symptoms
Improved exercise capacity
Reduced thromboembolic events
Sinus rhythm restoration
6
Improved arrhythmias
Reduced premature ventricular complexes
7
Angina relief
Reduced arrhythmic episodes
8
Effective for ventricular tachycardia
Prevent sudden death
9
Ventricular arrhythmia control
10
HCM treatment
Symptom relief
11
Least hemodynamic side effects
12
Suppresses ventricular arrhythmia
13
Alternative treatments
Complete abolition of contractions
14
Cardiomyopathy treatment
15
Arrhythmia Treatment
Lower Side Effects
16
Antiarrhythmic effect
17
Brugada syndrome
Effective AAD treatment
No arrhythmic events
18
Reduces HCM symptoms
19
Antihypertensive
Raynaud's phenomenon treatment
Tachycardia treatment
21
Arrhythmia Treatment
22
Atrial fibrillation management
23
Sodium channelopathies treatment
24
Arrhythmia treatment
25
Arrhythmia reduction
26
Risk Keywords
Dosage-dependent
Side effects
1
Cardiodepression
Negative inotropy
4
Bradycardia
Hypotension
5
Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia
Proarrhythmia
6
Proarrhythmic effect
Side effects
7
Side effects
8
Serious adverse reactions
9
None reported
10
Increases heart rate
Increases mean arterial pressure
12
Side effects
13
Adverse reactions
Cardiac events
Withdrawals
14
Arrhythmia
15
Proarrhythmias
Side effects
17
Side effects
18
Vagolytic effects
19
Haemodynamic effects
Myocardial depression
20
Ankle edema
Constipation
Negative inotropy
Vasodilation
21
Negative Inotropic Effects
Proarrhythmic Effects
22
Antiarrhythmic side effects
Stroke risk
23
Side effects
25
Anticholinergic symptoms
26
Literature analysis of 26 papers
Positive Content
24
Neutral Content
0
Negative Content
2
Article Type
7
0
0
5
25
1.

[Antiarrhythmic effect of disopyramide in ventricular extrasystole and auricular fibrillation].

Author: BreithardtG, HaertenK, SeipelL

Alternative to quinidine
Arrhythmia control
Dosage-dependent
Side effects

Disopyramide was effective in treating chronic arrhythmias in 39 patients, with a similar efficacy to other antiarrhythmic drugs. Common side effects were reversible and dose-dependent.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
English AbstractA summary of a research paper/publication written in English for a wider audience.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : German

2.

The anticholinergic side effects of disopyramide and controlled-release disopyramide.

Author: TeichmanS

Reduced anticholinergic side effects

Pyridostigmine, an acetyl-cholinesterase inhibitor, was found to effectively prevent or attenuate the anticholinergic side effects of disopyramide without affecting its antiarrhythmic properties.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

3.

Quantitative assessment of cibenzoline administration for vagally mediated paroxysmal atrial fibrillation using frequency-domain heart rate variability analysis.

Author: MiyakoshiMutsumi, IkedaTakanori, MiwaYosuke, SakakiKatsura, IshiguroHaruhisa, AbeAtsuko, TsukadaTakehiro, MeraHisaaki, YusuSatoru, YoshinoHideaki

Sinus rhythm maintenance
Vagal P-AF treatment

Cibenzoline, an antiarrhythmic drug, is effective in maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (P-AF), particularly those with vagally mediated P-AF.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

4.

Cardiodepressive effects of antiarrhythmic drugs.

Author: SchlepperM

Cardiodepression
Negative inotropy

Antiarrhythmic drugs of class I can have negative inotropic effects due to alterations of intracellular calcium, and the degree of cardiodepression is influenced by peripheral circulatory effects and functional state of the myocardium.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

5.

Intravenous administration of diltiazem in the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias.

Author: BoudonasG, LefkosN, EfthymiadisA P, StyliadisI G, TsapasG

Tachycardia treatment
Bradycardia
Hypotension

Diltiazem was found to be more effective than disopyramide in converting paroxysmal atrial tachycardia to sinus rhythm and retarding ventricular response in patients with atrial fibrillation and fluttering. Diltiazem was associated with a small, transient decrease in blood pressure in most patients, but a significant decrease in blood pressure with intense symptoms was observed in one patient who experienced bradycardia.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Controlled Clinical TrialA clinical trial that evaluates the effectiveness of a treatment by comparing a group that receives the intervention with a group that receives a placebo or standard treatment.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

7.

Propafenone versus disopyramide for treatment of chronic symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias. A multicenter study.

Author: JonasonT, RingqvistI, BandhS, NilssonG, NilssonH, LidellC, BjerleP, OlofssonB O

Improved arrhythmias
Reduced premature ventricular complexes
Proarrhythmic effect
Side effects

Propafenone was more effective than disopyramide in suppressing premature ventricular complexes (PVCs) and had fewer side effects. Propafenone reduced PVCs by 91.4% compared to 63.5% for disopyramide (p<.01).

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

8.

Safety and efficacy of ranolazine in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Real-world experience in a National Referral Center.

Author: ArgiròAlessia, ZampieriMattia, DeiLorenzo-Lupo, FerrantiniCecilia, MarchiAlberto, TomberliAlessia, BaldiniKatia, CappelliFrancesco, FavilliSilvia, PassantinoSilvia, ZocchiChiara, TassettiLuigi, GabrieleMartina, MauriziNiccolò, MarchionniNiccolò, CoppiniRaffaele, OlivottoIacopo

Angina relief
Reduced arrhythmic episodes
Side effects

Ranolazine was safe and well-tolerated in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). It was effective in relieving angina symptoms and may be considered for patients with HCM and microvascular angina.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

10.

Combination of disopyramide and mexiletine for better tolerance and additive effects for treatment of ventricular arrhythmias.

Author: KimS G, MercandoA D, TamS, FisherJ D

Ventricular arrhythmia control
None reported

Combination therapy with disopyramide and mexiletine was more effective than single drug therapy in treating ventricular premature complexes.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

11.

Drug Therapy for Hypertrophic Cardiomypathy: Physiology and Practice.

Author: SherridMark V

HCM treatment
Symptom relief

Pharmacological therapy is the first-line treatment for left ventricular outflow obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Beta-blockade is initially used, and disopyramide is added if needed. New pharmacotherapeutic approaches are being investigated for non-obstructive HCM.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

12.

SC-36602, a new antiarrhythmic agent: comparison of its cardiovascular profile with that of other antiarrhythmic drugs.

Author: FrederickL G, HatleyF R, McDonaldS J, StammM H, GarthwaiteS M

Least hemodynamic side effects
Increases heart rate
Increases mean arterial pressure

SC-36602, a new class 1A/1B antiarrhythmic agent, was found to have fewer hemodynamic side effects than other antiarrhythmic agents at its antiarrhythmic dose in dogs. SC-36602 did not cause significant myocardial depression and had the least direct negative inotropic action of the drugs studied.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

13.

Combination antiarrhythmic treatment among class Ia, Ib, and II agents for ventricular arrhythmias.

Author: TanabeT

Suppresses ventricular arrhythmia
Side effects

Disopyramide and mexiletine, both used to suppress ventricular arrhythmias, were equally effective when used alone or in combination. The combination therapy was associated with fewer side effects than single-drug therapy.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

14.

Tolerability and antiarrhythmic efficacy of disopyramide compared to lignocaine in selected patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction.

Author: RønnevikP K, GundersenT, AbrahamsenA M

Alternative treatments
Complete abolition of contractions
Adverse reactions
Cardiac events
Withdrawals

Lignocaine and disopyramide were compared in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction and ventricular premature contractions. Both drugs were effective in treating ventricular arrhythmias, with disopyramide demonstrating a higher rate of complete abolition of premature ventricular contractions.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

15.

Electrophysiological and Contractile Effects of Disopyramide in Patients With Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A Translational Study.

Author: CoppiniRaffaele, FerrantiniCecilia, PionerJosè Manuel, SantiniLorenzo, WangZhinuo J, PalandriChiara, ScardigliMarina, VitaleGiulia, SacconiLeonardo, StefànoPierluigi, FlinkLaura, RiedyKatherine, PavoneFrancesco Saverio, CerbaiElisabetta, PoggesiCorrado, MugelliAlessandro, Bueno-OrovioAlfonso, OlivottoIacopo, SherridMark V

Cardiomyopathy treatment
Arrhythmia

Disopyramide is a medication used to treat obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. This study found that disopyramide inhibits multiple ion channels in cardiomyocytes, which may contribute to its effectiveness in reducing outflow gradients and preventing arrhythmias.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

16.

Comparison of propafenone and disopyramide for treatment of chronic ventricular arrhythmias: placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized crossover study.

Author: NaccarellaF, BracchettiD, PalmieriM, CantelliI, BertacciniP, AmbrosioniE

Arrhythmia Treatment
Lower Side Effects

Propafenone is more effective than disopyramide in treating frequent and complex premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia. It also has fewer side effects.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

18.

Management of Brugada Syndrome: Thirty-Three-Year Experience Using Electrophysiologically Guided Therapy With Class 1A Antiarrhythmic Drugs.

Author: BelhassenBernard, RahkovichMichael, MichowitzYoav, GlickAharon, ViskinSami

Brugada syndrome
Effective AAD treatment
No arrhythmic events
Side effects

Electrophysiologically guided class 1A antiarrhythmic drug treatment was effective for patients with Brugada syndrome.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

20.

[Experimental studies of the hemodynamics of disopyramide in comparison with quinidine].

Author: HoffmeisterH M, HeppA, SeipelL

Haemodynamic effects
Myocardial depression

The haemodynamic effects of quinidine and disopyramide were investigated in rats. Quinidine reduced left ventricular pressure, mean aortic pressure, heart rate, and dp/dtmax, but had no effect on isovolumetric pressure maxima. Disopyramide had minimal haemodynamic effects in clinical doses.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
English AbstractA summary of a research paper/publication written in English for a wider audience.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : German

21.

Calcium channel antagonists. Part III: Use and comparative efficacy in hypertension and supraventricular arrhythmias. Minor indications.

Author: OpieL H

Antihypertensive
Raynaud's phenomenon treatment
Tachycardia treatment
Ankle edema
Constipation
Negative inotropy
Vasodilation

Calcium antagonists are effective in treating hypertension by decreasing systemic vascular resistance. They can be used as first-choice therapy for severe hypertension and may have a special role in certain patient groups.

Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

22.

Flecainide. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic properties and therapeutic efficacy.

Author: HolmesB, HeelR C

Arrhythmia Treatment
Negative Inotropic Effects
Proarrhythmic Effects

Flecainide is a useful antiarrhythmic agent that is effective in suppressing ventricular ectopic beats and tachycardia. It has a convenient dosing schedule and a low incidence of serious side effects.

Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
ReviewAn article that critically examines existing research on a particular topic and summarizes the current state of knowledge in the field.

Language : English

23.

Management of newly detected atrial fibrillation: a clinical practice guideline from the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American College of Physicians.

Author: SnowVincenza, WeissKevin B, LeFevreMichael, McNamaraRobert, BassEric, GreenLee A, MichlKeith, OwensDouglas K, SusmanJeffrey, AllenDeborah I, Mottur-PilsonChristel,

Atrial fibrillation management
Antiarrhythmic side effects
Stroke risk

These recommendations, developed by the Joint Panel of the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American College of Physicians, provide guidance for managing newly detected atrial fibrillation in adults. The recommendations prioritize rate control with chronic anticoagulation as the preferred strategy for most patients, while acknowledging the role of rhythm control for select cases based on individual patient factors.

GuidelineRecommendations and best practices developed by experts for healthcare professionals to refer to when making clinical judgments and providing care.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Practice GuidelineGuidelines and recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of specific medical conditions in medical practice.
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch funding provided by government agencies outside the United States.

Language : English

25.

Relationship between the therapeutic effects or side-effects and the serum disopyramide or mono-N-dealkylated disopyramide concentration after repeated oral administration of disopyramide to arrhythmic patients.

Author: MasuharaK, OhnoT, HamaguchiK, KatohK, KashiwadaK, TakahashiS, TanakaY, SomeyaK, OgataH

Arrhythmia treatment
Side effects

A blood disopyramide concentration greater than 2 micrograms/ml may be required to achieve the therapeutic effect of disopyramide administered repeatedly. The incidence of side-effects was 17.7%, and there were no significant differences in blood disopyramide or its metabolite concentrations between the groups with and without side-effects.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.

Language : English

26.

Efficacy of and adverse effects of disopyramide. Comparison of capsules, controlled release tablets and placebo in patients with chronic ventricular arrhythmias.

Author: EkelundL G, NilssonE, WalldiusG

Arrhythmia reduction
Anticholinergic symptoms

Disopyramide was effective in reducing ventricular arrhythmias in 14 patients with coronary heart disease. There was no difference in efficacy between ordinary capsules and slow-release tablets. Side effects were mild and similar for both preparations.

Clinical TrialA clinical trial is a planned study conducted on humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and treatment methods. It aims to explore the possibilities of new treatments and improve the health of patients.
Comparative StudyResearch that compares multiple groups/interventions to determine differences/similarities in outcomes/characteristics.
Journal ArticleAn article published in an academic or professional journal that reports original research or scholarly analysis.
Randomized Controlled TrialA clinical trial that randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups to evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Language : English

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